Prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriers and
antibiotic resistance among staff of clinical wards in Nikuee Hospital, Qom, Iran, in 2012
Zia Sheikholeslami N, MD1, Rezaeian M, PhD2,
Heidarpoor A, MSc3, Hadavi M, MSc4, Tashakori M, PhD
5*
1- Associated Prof., of Infectious Diseases, Dept. of Infectious
Diseases, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom, Iran. 2- Professor of Epidemiology and Statics,
Faculty of Medicine, Dept. of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Rafsanjan
University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran. 3- MSc in Microbiology,
Dept. of Microbiology, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom, Iran. 4- PhD by
Research Student, Dept. of Anesthesiology, Rafsanjan Paramedical
School, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran. 5- Assistant Prof., Dept. of Laboratory
Medicine, Rafsanjan Paramedical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical
Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
Abstract
Received: January
2016, Accepted: May 2016
Background:
Nosocomial infections are an
important cause of hospital mortalities. Staphylococcus aureus (S.
aureus) carriers among medical staff are an important source of
nosocomial infections. The purpose of this study was to investigate the
prevalence of the nasal carriers of S. aureus and antibiotic
resistance in staff of Nikuee Hospital, Qom, Iran. Materials and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 152 health care
workers (HCWs) were assessed to determine the frequency of nasal carriage of S.
aureus, the rates of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), and
their antibiotic resistance profiles in Nikuee Hospital in 2012. Clinical
samples were cultured and S. aureus was detected using conventional
bacteriologic methods. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns against
penicillin, vancomycin, erythromycin, clindamycin, cefazolin, co-trimoxazole,
and doxycycline were evaluated using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion
technique. Methicillin resistance was confirmed by oxacillin disk diffusion
test. Data were analyzed in SPSS software using chi-square test and
independent two-sample t-test. Results: Among the processed samples, 34.2% illustrated nasal
carriage of S. aureus, and among them, 23.5% were carriers of MRSA.
None of the isolates were resistant to vancomycin. However, 96.1%, 33.3%,
27.5%, 19.6%, 9.8%, and 15.7% resistance to penicillin, erythromycin,
clindamycin, cefazolin, co-trimoxazole, and doxycycline were observed. There
was no significant relationship between sex, age, and number of years of
healthcare service and positive nasal carriage. Conclusions:
Data obtained in this study
revealed high prevalence of nasal carriage of S. aureus (34.2%) in
HCWs at Nikuee Hospital. Therefore, it can be concluded that the role of the
hospital staff in Nikuee Hospital as a source of staphylococcal infections is
prominent. Thus, to prevent nosocomial infections, we recommend the
identification and treatment of the carriers among the staff of other hospitals. |
Keywords: Staphylococcus Aureus, Drug Resistance, Hospital
Personnel, Iran.
Introduction
Staphylococcus
aureus is an
important human pathogen and frequent cause of both nosocomial and community
acquired infections associated with high mortality and morbidity around the
world (1, 2).
S.
aureus have a
tendency to colonize in various parts of healthy human bodies such as the
nasopharyngeal area and skin (3). Previous investigations have shown
that the anterior nasal region is the area in which these bacteria most
commonly collect. It is* a
potent and increasing risk factor for subsequent staphylococcal infection in
both hospitals and communities (4, 5).
Colonization
with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) has been revealed to
increase the risk of MRSA infection both immediately and in long term carriers (6).
The colonization rate of S. aureus on the nose in the general
population is about 30%, although this
rate is higher in health care workers (HCWs) than the
general population (7, 8). Understanding the nasal carriage rate among HCWs and
their antimicrobial resistance profiles is
necessary for infection control and appropriate antibiotic therapy.
The average
rate of nasal carriers of S. aureus and MRSA among HCWs has been
reported to be 23.7% and 4.6%, respectively (9). The prevalence of nasal carriage of
S. aureus among hospital personnel reported by several studies in Iran
varied from 11% to 43% (10-16). However, no data have been provided
on HCWs of hospitals in Qom, Iran, until now.
According
to several reports, carriers can be eliminated through simple treatments (17). Such treatments had a beneficial
role in reducing nosocomial infections (7).
The identification of HCWs colonized with S. aureus
combined with hand hygiene and other precautions have been shown to be
effective in reducing the transmission and controlling the spread of
staphylococcal infections. Thus, this investigation was undertaken to study the
nasal carriage rate of S. aureus and MRSA
among HCWs at a hospital and to determine the antibiotic
resistance profile of the isolates.
Material and Methods
This cross-sectional study was
conducted in Nikuee Hospital of Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom, Iran,
in 2012. In total, 152 of the 180 HCWs were included in this investigation. HCWs
with a history of upper respiratory tract infection, nasal medication use,
antibiotic therapy, and recent nasal surgery were excluded from the study.
Demographic data, including sex, age, number of years of health care sevice,
history of upper respiratory infection, antibiotic use, and recent nose
surgery, were collected through the completion of a questionnaire by each
individual.
Samples were obtained using sterile
swabs from deep tissue of anterior nares. The swabs were immediately placed in
the transport media and transferred to the microbiology laboratory. The samples
were cultured in 5% sheep blood agar and incubated at 37 ºC for 48 hours.
S. aureus strains were identified according to
colony morphology and biochemical activities, and using coagulase test (18). Susceptibility profiles to
different antibiotics, including penicillin (10 IU), vancomycin (30 ug),
erythromycin (15 ug), doxycycline (30 ug), clindamycin (2 ug), cefazolin (30
ug), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (1.25/23.75 u) (HI-MEDIA, India), were
evaluated with the guidelines of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards
Institute (CLSI) using Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method (19).Methicillin-resistant isolates were
determined through oxacillin disk diffusion test (1 ug) using Muller-Hinton
agar plates inoculated with a suspension (equivalent to 0.5 McFarland
standards) of the isolated S. aureus. After incubation of the plates at
35 ºC for 24 hours, the inhibition zones were measured.
Interpretive criteria (in mm) for
oxacillin disk diffusion tests regarding S. aureus were 13 mm as
susceptible, 11-12 mm as intermediate, and 10 mm as resistant (20). S. aureus ATCC 25923 was
used as control strain.
After data
collection, statistical analyses were performed in order to determine the
frequency of subjects positive for nasal carriage of S. aureus. The
positive and negative subjects were grouped according to age, sex, and year of
health care service. The relationship between nasal carriers of S. aureus
and sex, age, and year of health care service was evaluated using statistical
methods, including chi-square test and independent two-sample t-test, in
SPSS software (version 16, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). In all analyses, P
values of less than 0.05 were considered as statistically significant.
Results
A total of
152 HCWs, consisting of 101 men (66.4%) and 51 women
(33.6%) with the age range of 23 to 56 years participated in this study.
Descriptive data of studied cases are presented in table 1. Out of all cases
screened, 51 (33.5%) individuals were identified as nasal carriers of S. aureus. On the other hand, 101 cases (66.5%) with
negative culture of nasal samples for S. aureus were classified as
non-carriers. According to figure 1, 37 (36.63%) of the 51 nasal carriers were
men, and only 14 (27.45%) were women.
Table 1: Descriptive
data on carriers and non-carriers of Staphylococcus aureus among staff of
clinical wards in Nikuee Hospital
|
Sex [N (%)] |
Age (year) Mean ± SD |
Work experience (year) Mean ± SD |
||
Male |
Female |
||||
Carrier |
37 (36.63) |
14 (27.45) |
36.20 ± 7.90 |
11.75 ± 7.74 |
|
Non-carrier |
64 (63.37) |
37 (72.55) |
35.74 ± 8.06 |
11.53 ± 7.74 |
|
Data
analysis according to sex, and mean age and years of health service between
carriers and non-carries revealed no statistically significant difference (P
> 0.05).
Among 51 S.
aureus isolates, 12 (23.5%) and 39 (76.5%)
were detected as MRSA and methicillin sensitive S. aureus (MSSA),
respectively, using oxacillin disk diffusion test.
The
resistance profile of isolated S. aureus to the tested antimicrobial
agents is presented in table 2. No resistance was observed against vancomycin
in the evaluated cases. Among the tested antibiotics, co-trimoxazole,
cefazolin, and clindamycin were found to be the most effective against isolated
strains.
Figure 1: Distribution
of carriage of Staphylococcus aureus in 151 health care workers in Nikuee
Hospital according to gender
Table 2: The
antibiotic resistance patterns of isolated Staphylococcus aureus to the tested
antimicrobial agents in health care workers at Nikuee Hospital
Antibiotics |
Resistance Number (%) |
Intermediate Number (%) |
Sensitive Number (%) |
Penicillin |
49 (96.1) |
0 (0.0) |
2 (3.9) |
Doxycycline |
8 (15.7) |
8 (15.7) |
35 (68.6) |
Co-trimoxazole |
5 (9.8) |
0 (0.0) |
46 (90.2) |
Oxacillin |
12 (23.5) |
0 (0.0) |
39 (76.5) |
Vancomycin |
0 (0.0) |
0 (0.0) |
51 (100) |
Clindamycin |
14 (27.5) |
1 (2.0) |
36 (70.5) |
Cefazolin |
10 (19.6) |
1 (2.0) |
40 (78.4) |
Erythromycin |
17 (33.3) |
6 (11.8) |
28 (54.9) |
Discussion
HCWs are an important source of S. aureus and can host these
organisms in the nasopharynx. Patients and hospital personnel colonized with S.
aureus in hospitals or health care centers may transfer it to patients or
their families through direct or close contact. In addition, they have a
critical role in the epidemiology and pathogenesis of staphylococcal infections
(21, 22). Nasal carriage of S. aureus
varies between ethnicities, geographic regions, and different groups (23). There have been no reports on the
prevalence of S. aureus nasal carriage among HCWs at Nikuee Hospital to
date. In this investigation, a nasal carriage rate of 33.6% was observed among
the studied cases. Of these, 23.5% were MRSA (i.e., 7.89% of all HCWs).
Carriage of S. aureus in the nares has been detected in investigations
in different countries including France (35.52%), Northeast Ethiopia (28.8%),
Saudi Arabia (25.4%), China (21.6%), and Nepal (15.7%) (24-28). In different studies in Iran, the
frequency of nasal carriage of S. aureus in HCWs was reported between
11% in Bojnurd, Iran, and 43% in Sanandaj, Iran (11, 15). The prevalence of MRSA carriers
ranged from 3% to 30% in Iran, according to several reports (15). Data obtained
in this study on the prevalence of S. aureus carries (33.6%) was
consistent with the results of the studies by Askari et al. in Namazi Hospital
in Shiraz, Iran, and Rahbar et al. in Tehran, Iran, that reported a frequency
of about 31% and 31.1%, respectively (10, 13). The estimated frequency of nasal
carriage in this study is higher than that reported by Moradi et al. (20.4%),
Sheikholeslami et al. (20%), Ghafouri et al. (11%), and Sharifi-mood et al. in
Zahedan, Iran (10%) (10, 11, 15-17). Nevertheless, our findings
demonstrated lower prevalence of S. aureus carriers than the finding of
Rashidian et al. in Sanandaj (43%) (12). MRSA carriage rate (7.89%) in the
present study was consistent with the results of previous studies in Iran which
reported a range of about 3% to 30% (15). The wide range of variation in nasal
carriers can be attributed to differences in human population, sample size,
study design, and sampling method.
In the
present study, 100% susceptibility of isolates to vancomycin was observed. This
finding was in agreement with that of previous reports in Iran (10, 14, 17). However, vancomycin-resistant S.
aureus have been reported in studies by Ghafouri et al., Ghasemian et al.,
and Saderi et al. in Iran (11, 14, 29). The highest resistance rate to
penicillin was consistent with previous studies in Iran and other countries (15, 30, 31). Low resistance rate of strains to
co-trimoxazole was reported previously by Navidinia et al. (30). This was in agreement with the
findings of the present study.
In this
study, like several previous reports, no association was observed between S.
aureus carriers and sex, age, and duration of health care service (15). However, Ohadian Moghadam et al.
have reported a significant difference between sex and occupation with regard
to MRSA carriage.
The major limitation of this study was that it
was conducted only in one hospital in Qom. Further
investigations which will help us to develop a better staphylococcal infections
and spread of infection control are recommended. Thus, the evaluation of HCWs
in different hospitals of Qom, assessment of the relation between nasal
carriers of S. aureus among HCWs and work department, job type, and
underlying diseases, and determination of mupirocin-resistant S. aureus
among HCWs is suggested.
Conclusion
Since the
HCWs have an important role as a reservoir for staphylococcal infection in
hospital settings, regular screening and treatment of carriers among hospital
staff is recommended in order to reduce transmission of staphylococcal
infection in the hospital. Consequently, evaluation of antimicrobial resistance of
staphylococcal isolates is necessary prior to antibiotic therapy in order to provide
suitable treatment.
Acknowledgement
The authors appreciate the efforts of Maryam Bahsoun
(Research Center, Ali-ibn Abi Talib Hospital, Rafsanjan, Iran) for her efforts
in the translation of this paper and the laboratory personnel (Qom, Iran) for performing the laboratory tests.
Conflict of interests: None declared.
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* Corresponding author: Mahnaz Tashakori, Dept. of Laboratory
Medicine, Rafsanjan Paramedical School, Rafsanjan University of Medical
Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
Email: m_tashakori44@yahoo.com