Journal of Occupational
Health and Epidemiology
Rafsanjan university Of medical sciences
Volume 14, Issue 3 (Summer 2025)
J Occup Health Epidemiol 2025, 14(3): 194-204 |
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Ethics code: IR.QUMS.REC.1402.159
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Rezaeipour K, Zaroushani V, Amerzadeh M. Impact of Human Factors in Emergency Evacuations during Building Fires: A Systematic Review. J Occup Health Epidemiol 2025; 14 (3) :194-204
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1- B.Sc. in Occupational Health and Safety Engineering, Dept. of Occupational Health and Safety Engineering, Student Research Committee, School of Public Health, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran.
2- Assistant Prof., Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Research Institute for Prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran. & Assistant Prof., Dept. of Occupational Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Qazvin University Of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran. ,v.zaroushani@qums.ac.ir
3- Assistant Prof., Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran.
2- Assistant Prof., Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Research Institute for Prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran. & Assistant Prof., Dept. of Occupational Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Qazvin University Of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran. ,
3- Assistant Prof., Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran.
Article history
Received: 2024/11/20
Accepted: 2025/03/16
ePublished: 2025/09/28
Accepted: 2025/03/16
ePublished: 2025/09/28
Subject:
Occupational Health
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Fig. 1. The search path of the selection of input studies in the current review based on the 2009 PRISMA method [13]
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Introduction
Fires are prevalent incidents that incur substantial economic and social costs while posing serious threats to individual safety. A fire can rapidly jeopardize both property and personal well-being. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), local fire departments in the United States responded to approximately 1.5 million fires in 2022, leading to 3,790 fatalities, 13,250 injuries, and an estimated financial loss of $18 billion [1]. One of the most effective strategies for mitigating the consequences of fire incidents is developing emergency evacuation plans, which are integral to emergency response programs. To create these plans, it is critical to understand the factors that influence individuals’ responses along emergencies [2].
A deeper comprehension of how individuals react during fire emergencies can enhance the design of safer structures. Further, recognizing human behavior in fire situations can support decision-makers in establishing the most effective processes for emergency evacuations [3]. Research into human behavior in fire scenarios is critical, as it has significant implications for individual safety, evacuation management, and disaster preparedness. The term “human behavior in fire” encompasses the actions of individuals during fire incidents, whether in buildings or larger outdoor scenarios, such as wildfires affecting communities. Understanding individual responses along a fire can help authorities guide and evacuate people more efficiently, resulting in improved crisis management [4].
Conducting a systematic review can help identify and categorize the factors affecting emergency evacuations, potentially lowering casualties among both residents and rescue personnel. It can also provide foundational insights based on human behavior to enhance building design and reinforce policies set forth by the International Labor Organization (ILO) [5].
A review of existing literature indicates that previous systematic studies have addressed human factors in a fragmented manner, with no comprehensive studies identified. Earlier reviews suggest that research has primarily focused on various factors affecting emergency evacuations, particularly human factors, but did so in a disjointed fashion. For instance, Mirsaeidi et al. (2018) explored factors influencing emergency evacuations during building fires, concluding that evacuation success depends on human characteristics, building features, and fire characteristics. Nevertheless, this study provided only a general overview of the factors, discussing human characteristics mainly in terms of movement speed, while overlooking other relevant dimensions [6].
Another study by Maguire-Koehler et al. (2010) explored building safety and human behavior along fires. They found that critical factors influencing residents’ fire response performance include fire characteristics, human factors, and building features. Nonetheless, this study focused exclusively on human behaviors, ignoring other human factors such as demographic characteristics and stress levels [7].
In a different study, Ding et al. (2021) dealt with emergency evacuation behaviors in high-rise buildings. Their findings primarily addressed group behaviors, with less emphasis on individual behaviors and other human factors [8]. Likewise, Selcuk Sater et al. (2020) examined evacuations from tall buildings, reporting a relationship between evacuation time, occupant load, and human behaviors. Nevertheless, this study also focused solely on human behavior without considering the influence of other human factors, such as demographic characteristics, stress levels, and personal traits during evacuation [9].
Given these observations and the necessity for effective implementation of emergency response programs to minimize casualties in fire incidents, as well as the importance of understanding human factors in the emergency evacuation process, this study aims to undertake a systematic review to identify and classify the human factors affecting emergency evacuations during building fires. It also seeks to address existing research gaps in focused reviews.
Materials and Methods
The search was performed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines in July 2023 using the PubMed and Google Scholar search engines, and in August 2023 in the Science Direct database. English-language articles published from 2010 to 2022 were identified using keywords selected based on the PICO framework, either individually or in combination.
The selection of the time frame from 2010 to 2022 for this systematic review was based on the aim of examining more recent articles and those most relevant from the past 12 years. The objective of this approach was to provide results that are closer to current conditions and new findings, thereby offering a more accurate representation of the present state. Further, based on the conducted searches, no systematic review published prior to 2010 was found that specifically addressed the human factors affecting emergency evacuation.
The some searched keywords included “emergency evacuation AND fire,” “fire,” “fire AND emergency set,” “exit emergency in fire,” “human behavior AND fire,”, “human behavior AND emergency evacuation”, “building fire OR workplace fire”, “emergency evacuation OR emergency exit”, “fire evacuation OR fire exit”, and “human behavior in fire.”
The evaluation of studies was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the abstracts of the articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the second stage, the articles whose abstracts met the criteria were assessed through their full texts and re-evaluated according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Ultimately, the eligible studies were included in the analysis phase.
Articles were selected for review if their titles or abstracts contained the terms “emergency evacuation,” “fire,” and “human.” The titles, abstracts, and keywords of the identified articles were meticulously reviewed. To boost the sensitivity of the search, we also utilized keywords and references from the selected articles. Following an initial review of the abstracts, relevant articles were separated from those deemed irrelevant, with duplicates removed. The full texts of the screened articles were collected, while articles lacking available full texts were excluded.
The screening of articles was conducted according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria displayed in Fig. 1, following PRISMA methodology.
The Hawker tool encompasses nine criteria for ascertaining the quality of articles, addressing elements such as clarity of study objectives, suitable design and analysis, accuracy in data collection, attention to ethical considerations, and transparent presentation of results. The tool developed by Hawker and colleagues was employed to ascertain the quality of qualitative studies. It consists of nine questions, each of which can be rated as "good," "fairly good," "poor," or "very poor." These ratings were then converted into scores ranging from 1 to 4. The minimum possible score for each study is 9, while the maximum is 36. The quality of the studies was categorized into three levels: high quality (30-36 points), moderate quality (24-29 points), and low quality (9-24 points). Only studies classified as high or moderate quality were included in the final analysis [10]. The PRISMA method provides a framework for conducting systematic reviews, which involves identifying sources, screening based on criteria, selecting the final studies, and transparently reporting the steps as well as results. These tools were employed to ensure the quality and transparency of this study.
Further, considering the qualitative nature of the studies, the Hawker et al. tool was used to evaluate the quality of the screened articles. Ultimately, only those articles with high and moderate quality were included in the study. Note that gray literature was not utilized in this review [11-13].
Fires are prevalent incidents that incur substantial economic and social costs while posing serious threats to individual safety. A fire can rapidly jeopardize both property and personal well-being. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), local fire departments in the United States responded to approximately 1.5 million fires in 2022, leading to 3,790 fatalities, 13,250 injuries, and an estimated financial loss of $18 billion [1]. One of the most effective strategies for mitigating the consequences of fire incidents is developing emergency evacuation plans, which are integral to emergency response programs. To create these plans, it is critical to understand the factors that influence individuals’ responses along emergencies [2].
A deeper comprehension of how individuals react during fire emergencies can enhance the design of safer structures. Further, recognizing human behavior in fire situations can support decision-makers in establishing the most effective processes for emergency evacuations [3]. Research into human behavior in fire scenarios is critical, as it has significant implications for individual safety, evacuation management, and disaster preparedness. The term “human behavior in fire” encompasses the actions of individuals during fire incidents, whether in buildings or larger outdoor scenarios, such as wildfires affecting communities. Understanding individual responses along a fire can help authorities guide and evacuate people more efficiently, resulting in improved crisis management [4].
Conducting a systematic review can help identify and categorize the factors affecting emergency evacuations, potentially lowering casualties among both residents and rescue personnel. It can also provide foundational insights based on human behavior to enhance building design and reinforce policies set forth by the International Labor Organization (ILO) [5].
A review of existing literature indicates that previous systematic studies have addressed human factors in a fragmented manner, with no comprehensive studies identified. Earlier reviews suggest that research has primarily focused on various factors affecting emergency evacuations, particularly human factors, but did so in a disjointed fashion. For instance, Mirsaeidi et al. (2018) explored factors influencing emergency evacuations during building fires, concluding that evacuation success depends on human characteristics, building features, and fire characteristics. Nevertheless, this study provided only a general overview of the factors, discussing human characteristics mainly in terms of movement speed, while overlooking other relevant dimensions [6].
Another study by Maguire-Koehler et al. (2010) explored building safety and human behavior along fires. They found that critical factors influencing residents’ fire response performance include fire characteristics, human factors, and building features. Nonetheless, this study focused exclusively on human behaviors, ignoring other human factors such as demographic characteristics and stress levels [7].
In a different study, Ding et al. (2021) dealt with emergency evacuation behaviors in high-rise buildings. Their findings primarily addressed group behaviors, with less emphasis on individual behaviors and other human factors [8]. Likewise, Selcuk Sater et al. (2020) examined evacuations from tall buildings, reporting a relationship between evacuation time, occupant load, and human behaviors. Nevertheless, this study also focused solely on human behavior without considering the influence of other human factors, such as demographic characteristics, stress levels, and personal traits during evacuation [9].
Given these observations and the necessity for effective implementation of emergency response programs to minimize casualties in fire incidents, as well as the importance of understanding human factors in the emergency evacuation process, this study aims to undertake a systematic review to identify and classify the human factors affecting emergency evacuations during building fires. It also seeks to address existing research gaps in focused reviews.
Materials and Methods
The search was performed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines in July 2023 using the PubMed and Google Scholar search engines, and in August 2023 in the Science Direct database. English-language articles published from 2010 to 2022 were identified using keywords selected based on the PICO framework, either individually or in combination.
The selection of the time frame from 2010 to 2022 for this systematic review was based on the aim of examining more recent articles and those most relevant from the past 12 years. The objective of this approach was to provide results that are closer to current conditions and new findings, thereby offering a more accurate representation of the present state. Further, based on the conducted searches, no systematic review published prior to 2010 was found that specifically addressed the human factors affecting emergency evacuation.
The some searched keywords included “emergency evacuation AND fire,” “fire,” “fire AND emergency set,” “exit emergency in fire,” “human behavior AND fire,”, “human behavior AND emergency evacuation”, “building fire OR workplace fire”, “emergency evacuation OR emergency exit”, “fire evacuation OR fire exit”, and “human behavior in fire.”
The evaluation of studies was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, the abstracts of the articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the second stage, the articles whose abstracts met the criteria were assessed through their full texts and re-evaluated according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Ultimately, the eligible studies were included in the analysis phase.
Articles were selected for review if their titles or abstracts contained the terms “emergency evacuation,” “fire,” and “human.” The titles, abstracts, and keywords of the identified articles were meticulously reviewed. To boost the sensitivity of the search, we also utilized keywords and references from the selected articles. Following an initial review of the abstracts, relevant articles were separated from those deemed irrelevant, with duplicates removed. The full texts of the screened articles were collected, while articles lacking available full texts were excluded.
The screening of articles was conducted according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria displayed in Fig. 1, following PRISMA methodology.
The Hawker tool encompasses nine criteria for ascertaining the quality of articles, addressing elements such as clarity of study objectives, suitable design and analysis, accuracy in data collection, attention to ethical considerations, and transparent presentation of results. The tool developed by Hawker and colleagues was employed to ascertain the quality of qualitative studies. It consists of nine questions, each of which can be rated as "good," "fairly good," "poor," or "very poor." These ratings were then converted into scores ranging from 1 to 4. The minimum possible score for each study is 9, while the maximum is 36. The quality of the studies was categorized into three levels: high quality (30-36 points), moderate quality (24-29 points), and low quality (9-24 points). Only studies classified as high or moderate quality were included in the final analysis [10]. The PRISMA method provides a framework for conducting systematic reviews, which involves identifying sources, screening based on criteria, selecting the final studies, and transparently reporting the steps as well as results. These tools were employed to ensure the quality and transparency of this study.
Further, considering the qualitative nature of the studies, the Hawker et al. tool was used to evaluate the quality of the screened articles. Ultimately, only those articles with high and moderate quality were included in the study. Note that gray literature was not utilized in this review [11-13].
Fig. 1. The search path of the selection of input studies in the current review based on the 2009 PRISMA method [13]
Results
Study Search and Selection Results: In the initial search, a total of 426 studies published between 2010 and 2022 were identified from the Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct databases. Following removal of duplicate articles, 353 studies were selected based on their titles, abstracts, and keywords. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, an additional 219 studies were eliminated, leading to 134 remaining articles. Next, 104 studies were further excluded during the full-text review and data extraction process, ultimately leaving 34 studies for inclusion in the final analysis.
Study Characteristics: The final selection comprised 34 articles that fulfilled the specified inclusion and exclusion criteria.
The inclusion criteria for the study involved research that examined emergency evacuation during fires, factors influencing emergency evacuation, human behaviors along evacuation, and the impact of human factors on the evacuation process. Conversely, studies were excluded if their full text was not available, if they were not published in reputable journals indexed in Scopus, PubMed, or Web of Science, or if their reported results were unclear or non-transparent.
Among these, 24 were descriptive studies, seven were experimental studies, two were case studies, and one was a systematic review. The articles originated from a diverse range of countries, including China (17 articles), Australia (3 articles), the United States (3 articles), Canada (2 articles), Italy (2 articles), and Iran (2 articles). Further, studies from other countries such as Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Turkey, Jordan, and Portugal each contributed one article to the review. Notably, one of the included articles resulted from collaborative research between the United Kingdom and the United States.
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the included studies is presented in. The human factors identified in the included studies that would influence emergency evacuations were categorized as follows:
Study Search and Selection Results: In the initial search, a total of 426 studies published between 2010 and 2022 were identified from the Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct databases. Following removal of duplicate articles, 353 studies were selected based on their titles, abstracts, and keywords. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, an additional 219 studies were eliminated, leading to 134 remaining articles. Next, 104 studies were further excluded during the full-text review and data extraction process, ultimately leaving 34 studies for inclusion in the final analysis.
Study Characteristics: The final selection comprised 34 articles that fulfilled the specified inclusion and exclusion criteria.
The inclusion criteria for the study involved research that examined emergency evacuation during fires, factors influencing emergency evacuation, human behaviors along evacuation, and the impact of human factors on the evacuation process. Conversely, studies were excluded if their full text was not available, if they were not published in reputable journals indexed in Scopus, PubMed, or Web of Science, or if their reported results were unclear or non-transparent.
Among these, 24 were descriptive studies, seven were experimental studies, two were case studies, and one was a systematic review. The articles originated from a diverse range of countries, including China (17 articles), Australia (3 articles), the United States (3 articles), Canada (2 articles), Italy (2 articles), and Iran (2 articles). Further, studies from other countries such as Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Turkey, Jordan, and Portugal each contributed one article to the review. Notably, one of the included articles resulted from collaborative research between the United Kingdom and the United States.
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the included studies is presented in. The human factors identified in the included studies that would influence emergency evacuations were categorized as follows:
- Demographic or Physiological Parameters:
This category includes factors such as age, gender, physical ability, and health status that may affect individuals’ evacuation performance. - Supportive Tools for Emergency Evacuation: This covers technologies and systems designed to aid evacuation, including alarms, signage, and emergency lighting.
- Individual Capabilities: This refers to personal skills and competencies, such as decision-making abilities and familiarity with the building layout.
- Stress and Personal Characteristics: This category is comprised of the psychological responses and traits of individuals along emergencies, including anxiety levels and coping mechanisms.
- Human Behavior: This includes the actions and reactions of individuals during evacuations, influenced by social dynamics and situational awareness.
- Presence of Emergency Response Plans: It deals with existence and effectiveness of established evacuation plans and procedures within buildings.
Table 1. Characteristic of studies in systematic review
| No | Author | Year | Country | Type of study | Study environment | Tools | Human factors |
| 1 | Kaifeng Deng [14] |
2022 | China | Experimental | Train Station | Simulation/Questionnaire | Supportive tools for emergency evacuation (alarm and visual stimuli) |
| 2 | Max Kinateder [15] | 2019 | Canada | Experimental | Laboratory Environment | Simulation (VR) / Questionnaire | Supportive tools for emergency evacuation (warning signs) |
| 3 | Mohammadreza Shokouhi [16] | 2019 | Iran | Systematic Review | Residential Buildings | Database Search | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (age, race, physical and mental health, education level, marital status) |
| 4 | Reza Rostami [17] | 2020 | Iran | Experimental | Schools | Simulation | Emergency response plan |
| 5 | Majed Almejmaj [18] | 2014 | USA and UK | Descriptive | Various data from Saudi Arabia | Simulation | Previous training (training in public places) |
| 6 | Qin Luo [19] | 2018 | China | Case Study | Metro Station | Simulation | Previous training (familiarization with exit routes) Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (physical and mental health, education level) |
| 7 | Sh. F. Abu-Safieh [20] | 2011 | Jordan | Experimental | Virtual Environment | Individual capabilities (Decision-making ability) | Supportive tools for emergency evacuation (architectural cues) |
| 8 | Zihao Wang [21] | 2022 | Portugal | Descriptive | Virtual Environment | Questionnaire / Virtual Reality | Emergency response plan |
| 9 | W. G. Song [22] | 2014 | China | Descriptive | Underground Store | Questionnaire | Emergency response plan Previous training (familiarization with exit routes) |
| 10 | Nan Li [23] | 2020 | China | Descriptive | Metro Station | Simulation | Human behavior (movement with the crowd) |
| 11 | Nan Li [24] | 2019 | China | Experimental | Museum | Simulation | Individual tendencies/inherent tendencies (culture and social characteristics) |
| 12 | Yuan Cheng [25] | 2018 | China | Descriptive | Any Environment | Simulation | Stress and personal characteristics (stress and panic) |
| 13 | Nan Li [26] | 2020 | China | Experimental | Metro Station | Modeling | Previous training (familiarization with exit routes) |
| 14 | Guolei Tang [27] | 2021 | China | Descriptive | Terminal Building | Emergency response plan | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (age and gender) |
| 15 | Adrian Munteanb [28] | 2012 | Italy | Descriptive | Building | Network Model | Stress and personal characteristics (stress and panic) |
| 16 | Majed Almejmaj [29] | 2017 | USA | Descriptive | School | Survey/Design | Individual tendencies/inherent tendencies (culture and social characteristics) |
| 17 | Xia Zhang [30] | 2013 | Canada | Experimental | Building | Emergency response plan | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (age, gender) |
| 18 | Milad Haghani [4] | 2016 | Australia | Descriptive | Complex | Simulation | Stress and personal characteristics (stress and panic) |
| 19 | Jiang Lixue [31] | 2020 | China | Descriptive | Any Environment | Virtual Environment | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (education level) |
| 20 | Yuchun Zhangb [32] | 2020 | China | Descriptive | Any Environment | Questionnaire/Simulation | Stress and personal characteristics (effects of smoke on mental state) |
| 21 | Yuan Weifeng [33] | 2011 | Singapore | Case Study | Building | Simulation | Emergency response plan |
| 22 | Coshkan shahin [34] | 2019 | Turkry | Descriptive | Building and Area | Simulation | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (age) |
| 23 | Ning Ding [8] | 2021 | China | Descriptive | Building | Virtual Reality | Stress and personal characteristics (in high-rise buildings) |
| 24 | JIN Hong-yu [35] | 2011 | China | Descriptive | Subway | Emergency response plan | Stress and personal characteristics (stress and panic) |
| 25 | Sun J Ha [36] | 2013 | China | Descriptive | Any Environment | Article Review and Fire | Individual capabilities (understanding ability) |
| 26 | Jing-hong Wang [37] | 2016 | China | Descriptive | Metro Station | Questionnaire | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (age, gender) |
| 27 | Lovreglio R [38] | 2014 | Italy | Descriptive | Any Environment | Modeling/Interview | Human behavior (herd behavior) |
| 28 | Wu He [39] | 2019 | China | Any Environment | Modeling | Human behavior (Movement with the crowd) | Stress and personal characteristics (stress and panic) |
29 |
Nirajan Shiwakoti [40] | 2017 | Australia | Descriptive | Train | Survey | Human behavior (herd behavior) Previous training (training in public places) |
| 30 | Mohammed Mahmod Shuaib [41] | 2018 | Saudi Arabia | Descriptive | Any Environment | Simulation | Human behavior (herd behavior) |
| 31 | Sandra Vaiciulyte [42] | 2021 | England | Descriptive | Any Environment | Simulation | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (age, gender, marital status) |
| 32 | Anthony Chun Yin Yuen [43] | 2021 | Australia | Descriptive | Any Environment | Modeling | Stress and personal characteristics (stress and panic) |
| 33 | Rui Liu [44] | 2021 | USA | Descriptive | Building | Questionnaire/Virtual Reality | Individual tendencies/inherent tendencies (exit selection) |
| 34 | Ying Liu [45] | 2021 | China | Descriptive | University Gym | Questionnaire | Demographic or physiological parameters affecting evacuation (gender, physical and mental health) |
Discussion
When individuals recognize a threat, their first step is to accurately ascertain the danger before deciding on a course of action [32, 34]. In emergencies, people may choose various actions, including protecting their lives and health, safeguarding property, collecting essential documents, seeking information, and executing an emergency evacuation [40]. Thus, before the operational phase of evacuation, two critical phases—risk perception and decision-making—must occur [32, 34]. A considerable percentage of individuals do not immediately initiate evacuation [34].
The findings of this systematic review revealed that several human factors significantly influence emergency evacuations. These factors included demographic or physiological parameters, supportive tools for emergency evacuation, individual capabilities, stress and personal characteristics, human behavior, emergency response plans, and individual or inherent tendencies. Notably, most of the included studies were undertaken by researchers from China and Australia, with stress and personal characteristics, together with demographic or physiological parameters, being the most frequently discussed topics.
Age: Individuals at different life stages exhibit distinct characteristics and capabilities. Previous studies have reported significant relationships between age and emergency evacuation [13, 44], including variations in action speed and evacuation time [32]. Older individuals tend to perceive emergencies and make decisions more effectively [24, 27]. Nevertheless, as age increases, the number of actions taken along an emergency may rise, which can be problematic if these actions do not align with safe evacuation [40]. Interestingly, age does not correlate with panic or fear responses [35], though advancing age is associated with diminishing walking speed, posing challenges during evacuations [32].
Race: Certain races and ethnic groups may be at greater risk of fire emergencies and may confront more challenges during the evacuation process owing to factors such as low economic status, poor living conditions, limited access to safety education, and socio-economic inequalities. Physical differences among races and ethnicities may also influence physical ability, but this impact requires further investigation in future studies.
Some studies have suggested that race and ethnicity may affect emergency evacuations, but the nature of this relationship remains unclear [13, 44]. Research in this area is limited, suggesting a need for more comprehensive studies to understand how cultural factors, language barriers, and community dynamics influence evacuation behaviors across different racial and ethnic groups.
Gender: Findings indicate that during fire incidents and emergency evacuations, men generally move faster than women [15, 24, 27], resulting in longer evacuation times for women [32]. Men tend to be more familiar with emergency evacuation processes, which may facilitate their efforts [43]. Other studies have shown that gender correlates with factors such as fear responses [35], the average number of actions taken in emergencies [40], and speed of action [32], potentially explaining the advantages observed in men regarding evacuation speed.
Physical disabilities and mental health status: Physical disabilities and mental health status significantly affect emergency evacuations, especially concerning evacuation time [13, 43, 44]. Those with physical disabilities often struggle to move toward exit routes, severely hindering their ability to evacuate effectively. Further, those with unstable mental health may find it challenging to make sound decisions during emergencies, complicating the evacuation process [16].
Education Level: Several studies have shown a significant relationship between education level and emergency evacuation [13, 16, 29, 44]. Higher education levels are linked to reduced fear responses [35]. As individuals attain higher education, their knowledge about emergencies and their potential consequences grows, leading to lower anxiety levels compared to those with less education. This enhanced awareness can enhance decision-making during emergencies, contributing to a smoother evacuation process.
Marital Status: Marital status, including an individual’s roles and responsibilities, significantly relates to emergency evacuations [13, 44]. Single individuals tend to navigate the evacuation process more easily due to fewer personal dependencies than those who are married or have families. Further, the size of a household correlates with the average number of actions taken during evacuations. As family size grows, the complexity of the evacuation process also rises, leading to longer evacuation times during fire incidents [40]. This dynamic highlights the need for tailored evacuation strategies that capture the unique challenges faced by families and individuals with varying marital statuses.
Type of Clothing: One included study reported the impact of clothing type on the emergency evacuation process during a fire. Findings revealed that long and loose clothing, as well as clothing that restricts movement, significantly affect movement speed during an evacuation. The type of clothing is meaningfully linked to evacuation speed and, consequently, the effectiveness of emergency evacuations [15].
Supportive Tools for Emergency Evacuation: Individuals are alerted to emergencies through alarms and visual stimuli, serving as critical components in prompting timely evacuations [11]. The effectiveness of these supportive tools is affected by various factors that shape individuals’ decisions to evacuate or remain in place. Understanding these factors is essential for improving evacuation protocols and ensuring safety during emergencies.
Warning Signs: Clear and visible warning signs are paramount in guiding individuals toward safe exit routes. Research has shown that well-placed signage can significantly lower confusion and improve evacuation times [12]. Effective signage should utilize universally recognized symbols and concise instructions to ensure quick comprehension of necessary actions. Studies have demonstrated that the strategic placement of signs in high-traffic areas can boost visibility and accessibility, thereby facilitating smoother evacuations [46]. Furthermore, incorporating digital signage that provides real-time updates about the emergency can further aid decision-making. Lighting along exit routes has been identified as a key factor in guiding individuals during evacuation. Adequate lighting helps occupants easily identify exit paths and become aware of obstacles or hazards caused by smoke and fire. Optimizing lighting pathways is useful to enable individuals to exit the building quickly and safely [47].
Lighting is highlighted is an integral part of fire management system design. User behavior analysis reveals that appropriate lighting can positively influence decision-making and reactions of individuals in emergency situations. By applying Building Information Modeling (BIM), designs can be developed to ensure improved lighting in exit routes, thereby boosting safety and efficiency during evacuations [48].
Familiarity with the Environment: Familiarity with the building layout plays a key role in evacuation decision-making. Individuals who are well-acquainted with their surroundings are more likely to respond swiftly to alarms and other cues, allowing for faster and more efficient evacuations [35]. Regular drills and training exercises can enhance this familiarity, ensuring that occupants know the best escape routes and procedures beforehand. A recent study emphasizes that individuals who participate in regular evacuation drills manifest enhanced confidence and quicker response times along actual emergencies [49].
Assistance from Neighbors and Staff: The presence of supportive individuals, such as neighbors or staff members, can significantly influence evacuation outcomes. In emergencies, the social dynamics of the environment can either facilitate or hinder evacuations. Research indicates that individuals are more likely to evacuate promptly when they receive assistance or encouragement from others [35]. This highlights the importance of fostering a community-oriented approach to emergency preparedness, where occupants are encouraged to look out for one another during crises. Studies have indicated that social support networks can reduce panic and improve collective decision-making during emergencies. researches showed trust dynamics within social networks influence emergency decision-making in large groups and highlights the significance of establishing and maintaining dual-trust relationships—both interpersonal and institutional—during emergencies. By understanding these trust dynamics, organizations can boost collaborative decision-making processes, resulting in more effective and timely responses along critical situations. The findings suggest that fostering trust within social networks can significantly ameliorate consensus-building, ultimately contributing to better outcomes in emergency management and response strategies [49].
Architectural Cues: The design of the physical environment, including architectural features such as exit signs, lighting, and the layout of corridors, can heavily influence evacuation efficiency. Architectural cues that are strategically placed can guide individuals toward exits and help lower panic during emergencies [17]. For instance, well-lit pathways and clearly marked exits can enhance visibility and aid in directing individuals to safety, particularly in low-visibility situations such as smoke-filled environments. Recent research has suggested that incorporating smart building technologies, such as automated lighting systems that activate during emergencies, can further boost evacuation effectiveness by illuminating pathways and exits. Properly designed emergency lighting enhances visibility in smoke-filled or dark environments, enabling occupants to clearly see escape routes and exits, thereby reducing confusion and facilitating efficient evacuations. The psychological impact of adequate lighting cannot be overstated; it helps mitigate panic and anxiety, fostering a sense of security among building occupants. When illuminated paths are present, individuals are more likely to remain calm and follow evacuation procedures. Further, emergency lighting can influence group dynamics, encouraging occupants to assist one another and move collectively toward exits [46].
Technological Innovations: The integration of advanced technologies into emergency response systems can significantly boost the effectiveness of supportive tools. For instance, mobile applications that provide real-time alerts and evacuation instructions can empower individuals to make informed decisions rapidly. These applications can also include features such as location tracking and interactive maps to guide users to the nearest exits [46]. Further, the utilization of virtual reality (VR) training simulations has proved to improve individuals’ preparedness and response times along emergencies by providing immersive experiences that familiarize them with evacuation procedures. Usage of virtual reality simulations can enhance the design and management of building exits in fire scenarios. This method analyzes individuals’ behavior under stressful and crowded conditions, enabling designers and safety managers to evaluate various scenarios as well as propose effective strategies to reduce casualties and improve safety. Ultimately, this simulation can support better training for staff and enhance preparedness for emergencies [50].
Movement Ability: Several studies have revealed that an individual’s movement ability significantly boosts action speed, thereby shortening evacuation time. Individuals with greater mobility can evacuate more quickly during emergencies [32]. In essence, enhanced movement ability is a key factor in effective emergency evacuations during fire incidents [44].
Decision-Making Ability: Those with strong decision-making skills in emergencies experience shorter evacuation times and reach safe areas more quickly [29, 44]. Environmental cues can also influence decision-making and the effectiveness of responses [17]. A well-developed ability to ascertain risks and make timely decisions can significantly enhance evacuation outcomes.
Situational Awareness: Previous studies have indicated that individuals need to accurately recognize danger and comprehend the emergency before initiating an evacuation. The ability to quickly analyze the situation and understand the conditions results in reduced evacuation times [34, 44]. Those who can promptly assess their environment and associated risks are more likely to choose the correct evacuation routes and act swiftly.
Stress and Panic: When individuals perceive danger, their initial reactions often include panic, worry, and stress [35]. These responses can spread among the crowd, resulting in collective panic, which frequently culminates in irrational decision-making [28]. Panic and stress can reduce action speed and prolong evacuation times [21, 32]. However, no studies have demonstrated a negative impact of stress on the quality of evacuations. Physical threats, such as obstacles or falling objects, can heighten fear and panic among individuals [41].
Conversely, panic can sometimes foster a sense of competition among individuals to exit quickly. If individuals can manage their emotional responses, they may transition to cooperative behavior, boosting the flow of evacuation and successfully navigating emergencies [22, 25]. A study noted that, in fire situations, women exhibited a greater tendency to panic than men, leading to slower evacuation times for women [33]. Thus, managing panic, stress, and emotional behaviors can mitigate their negative impacts along emergency evacuations [21, 22].
Stress plays a critical role in the emergency evacuation process, and its impacts depend on an individual's ability to manage the situation. If a person can control their stress and maintain sufficient composure over their behavior as well as decision-making in critical situations, stress can positively influence the evacuation process. Nevertheless, when an individual is unable to control their stress, it can result in reduced efficiency, poor decision-making, and ultimately elevate the risks associated with the evacuation process.
Effects of Smoke on Mental State: One study reported that smoke exposure not only lowers visibility and slows movement speed but also impacts individuals’ mental states, potentially inducing panic. However, smoke exposure can also augment residents’ motivation to evacuate, causing greater participation in emergency exits [30].
Past Experiences: Experiences from similar past incidents can result in two distinct outcomes: In the first scenario, individuals draw upon previous evacuation experiences, enhancing their knowledge and familiarity with procedures, ultimately shortening evacuation time. This familiarity can lead to quicker decision-making and more efficient movement toward safety. Conversely, negative past experiences, particularly traumatic events during previous evacuations, can induce significant stress and panic, disrupting the evacuation process and potentially prolonging evacuation times. For those who have faced traumatic past experiences, implementing management and support strategies along emergencies is crucial [16].
Movement with the Crowd: Most individuals prefer to move with the flow of the crowd and tend to select exits employed by the majority. This behavior emanates from the belief that other exits may be faulty or less accessible, leading to congestion at a single exit and thus increasing evacuation time. Conversely, a few individuals may opt for alternative exits, which, owing to lower traffic, can facilitate quicker evacuations [20, 30]. Nevertheless, if some individuals experience stress and panic, this can create a contagious atmosphere of fear within the crowd, rapidly escalating the situation and slowing the evacuation process [35, 37].
Herd Behavior: The impact of others’ decisions on evacuees is known as the herd effect [28]. People tend to engage in herd behavior, often following the actions of those around them [36, 38]. This can be so powerful that, during emergencies requiring quick decision-making, individuals predominantly rely on herd behavior rather than independent judgment [39]. Herd behavior is particularly evident when individuals move toward exits perceived as less congested. However, there remains uncertainty regarding whether this behavior results in competitive or cooperative interactions among individuals along emergency evacuations [38].
Exit Selection: Previous studies have identified three criteria that individuals rely on when choosing an exit during emergency evacuations in fire incidents: The first criterion is the preference for shorter routes. Individuals tend to choose pathways that minimize travel distance [23]. The second criterion involves following herd behavior, conforming to the actions of the crowd. People often select routes utilized by the majority of evacuees, believing that other exits may be faulty or less accessible. Very few individuals opt for less trafficked exits [36]. The third criterion involves the inclination to take shortcuts; some individuals may choose shortcuts even if these paths are filled with smoke. Nevertheless, if the smoke becomes too dense, they will avoid those routes. There is a correlation between individuals’ risk-taking abilities and their choice of shortcut paths; those with higher risk tolerance are more likely to select shortcut routes [42].
Presence of Emergency Response Plans: This factor describes the existence and effectiveness of established evacuation plans and procedures within buildings.
Culture and Social Characteristics: Several studies have reported that social characteristics, such as levels of cooperation, social roles, and collective stress, significantly affect overall evacuation times [20, 32]. Some research has revealed that societal culture influences individual tendencies, such as individualism and collectivism, impacting emergency evacuations [15]. For instance, in certain occupations, cultural factors have been found to shorten evacuation times. In groups such as teachers and students, culture has a meaningful effect on stress levels, calmness, and decision-making; nevertheless, its significant influence on reducing confusion during evacuations remains unestablished. Culture can also affect reaction times and hazard recognition times [26]. Nonetheless, another study found no significant relationship between emergency evacuation and culture [20].
Identified Information Gaps: In spite of the research conducted on emergency evacuation, significant gaps remain in understanding the relationship between factors such as race, clothing type and style, culture, as well as individuals' social characteristics and crowd movement patterns along emergencies. These factors, either directly or indirectly, influence individuals' behavior when faced with critical situations, but existing studies have not comprehensively explored these connections.
In particular, the influence of socio-cultural variables on individual decision-making, movement patterns in emergencies, and the interaction of these factors with environmental conditions as well as existing infrastructure require deeper examination based on comprehensive data. Further, exploring the interactions between individual and group characteristics and how these interactions affect the speed as well as efficiency of emergency evacuation could support improving planning and reducing harm in future crises.
To address these scientific gaps, future research should focus on multidimensional, data-driven analyses, particularly across diverse cultural and social environments, to develop a comprehensive and practical model for predicting and managing emergency evacuations.
Future research should deal with developing innovative technologies and training programs that boost individual preparedness and resilience in the face of emergencies. By fostering a comprehensive understanding of the human factors at play, we can ameliorate evacuation protocols and ultimately save lives during critical incidents.
The limitations of this study primarily related to access to the full texts of certain articles. Although some of the studies identified in the search fulfilled the inclusion criteria, they were excluded from the final review and analysis owing to the unavailability of their full texts. This limitation may have had a minor impact on the comprehensiveness of the study's findings.
Conclusion
This systematic review highlighted the complex interplay of human factors affecting emergency evacuations during fire incidents. Key demographic and physiological parameters, such as age, gender, physical ability, and education level, would significantly affect individuals’ threat perception and responses. While not strictly “human factors,” technological innovations, architectural features, and supportive tools such as alarms and signage also shape behavior and decision-making during emergencies. The review emphasizes the need for tailored evacuation strategies that deal with the diverse needs of vulnerable populations, including the elderly and those with health challenges. Understanding psychological dimensions, such as stress and panic, is critical for developing interventions that ameliorate situational awareness and decision-making skills. Ultimately, a multidisciplinary approach integrating psychology, sociology, and engineering is essential for effective emergency management.
Conflict of interest
None declared.
Funding
Qazvin University of Medical Sciences provides funding (grant number 403000323) and research support.
Ethical Considerations
This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the highest standards of academic integrity and ethical guidelines for systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Since this study involved the synthesis and analysis of previously published data, no direct contact with human or animal subjects occurred, and thus, obtaining ethical approval from an institutional review board was not required
Code of Ethics
This research was approved by Qazvin University of Medical Sciences under the ethical code IR.QUMS.REC.1402.159.
Authors' Contributions
Kiana Rezaeipour: Literature Search, Study Selection, Data Extraction, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing; Vida zaroushani: Conceptualization, Methodology, Literature Search, Study Selection, Data Extraction, Validation, Supervision, Project Administration, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing; Mohammad Amerzadeh:
Writing – Review & Editing.
When individuals recognize a threat, their first step is to accurately ascertain the danger before deciding on a course of action [32, 34]. In emergencies, people may choose various actions, including protecting their lives and health, safeguarding property, collecting essential documents, seeking information, and executing an emergency evacuation [40]. Thus, before the operational phase of evacuation, two critical phases—risk perception and decision-making—must occur [32, 34]. A considerable percentage of individuals do not immediately initiate evacuation [34].
The findings of this systematic review revealed that several human factors significantly influence emergency evacuations. These factors included demographic or physiological parameters, supportive tools for emergency evacuation, individual capabilities, stress and personal characteristics, human behavior, emergency response plans, and individual or inherent tendencies. Notably, most of the included studies were undertaken by researchers from China and Australia, with stress and personal characteristics, together with demographic or physiological parameters, being the most frequently discussed topics.
Age: Individuals at different life stages exhibit distinct characteristics and capabilities. Previous studies have reported significant relationships between age and emergency evacuation [13, 44], including variations in action speed and evacuation time [32]. Older individuals tend to perceive emergencies and make decisions more effectively [24, 27]. Nevertheless, as age increases, the number of actions taken along an emergency may rise, which can be problematic if these actions do not align with safe evacuation [40]. Interestingly, age does not correlate with panic or fear responses [35], though advancing age is associated with diminishing walking speed, posing challenges during evacuations [32].
Race: Certain races and ethnic groups may be at greater risk of fire emergencies and may confront more challenges during the evacuation process owing to factors such as low economic status, poor living conditions, limited access to safety education, and socio-economic inequalities. Physical differences among races and ethnicities may also influence physical ability, but this impact requires further investigation in future studies.
Some studies have suggested that race and ethnicity may affect emergency evacuations, but the nature of this relationship remains unclear [13, 44]. Research in this area is limited, suggesting a need for more comprehensive studies to understand how cultural factors, language barriers, and community dynamics influence evacuation behaviors across different racial and ethnic groups.
Gender: Findings indicate that during fire incidents and emergency evacuations, men generally move faster than women [15, 24, 27], resulting in longer evacuation times for women [32]. Men tend to be more familiar with emergency evacuation processes, which may facilitate their efforts [43]. Other studies have shown that gender correlates with factors such as fear responses [35], the average number of actions taken in emergencies [40], and speed of action [32], potentially explaining the advantages observed in men regarding evacuation speed.
Physical disabilities and mental health status: Physical disabilities and mental health status significantly affect emergency evacuations, especially concerning evacuation time [13, 43, 44]. Those with physical disabilities often struggle to move toward exit routes, severely hindering their ability to evacuate effectively. Further, those with unstable mental health may find it challenging to make sound decisions during emergencies, complicating the evacuation process [16].
Education Level: Several studies have shown a significant relationship between education level and emergency evacuation [13, 16, 29, 44]. Higher education levels are linked to reduced fear responses [35]. As individuals attain higher education, their knowledge about emergencies and their potential consequences grows, leading to lower anxiety levels compared to those with less education. This enhanced awareness can enhance decision-making during emergencies, contributing to a smoother evacuation process.
Marital Status: Marital status, including an individual’s roles and responsibilities, significantly relates to emergency evacuations [13, 44]. Single individuals tend to navigate the evacuation process more easily due to fewer personal dependencies than those who are married or have families. Further, the size of a household correlates with the average number of actions taken during evacuations. As family size grows, the complexity of the evacuation process also rises, leading to longer evacuation times during fire incidents [40]. This dynamic highlights the need for tailored evacuation strategies that capture the unique challenges faced by families and individuals with varying marital statuses.
Type of Clothing: One included study reported the impact of clothing type on the emergency evacuation process during a fire. Findings revealed that long and loose clothing, as well as clothing that restricts movement, significantly affect movement speed during an evacuation. The type of clothing is meaningfully linked to evacuation speed and, consequently, the effectiveness of emergency evacuations [15].
Supportive Tools for Emergency Evacuation: Individuals are alerted to emergencies through alarms and visual stimuli, serving as critical components in prompting timely evacuations [11]. The effectiveness of these supportive tools is affected by various factors that shape individuals’ decisions to evacuate or remain in place. Understanding these factors is essential for improving evacuation protocols and ensuring safety during emergencies.
Warning Signs: Clear and visible warning signs are paramount in guiding individuals toward safe exit routes. Research has shown that well-placed signage can significantly lower confusion and improve evacuation times [12]. Effective signage should utilize universally recognized symbols and concise instructions to ensure quick comprehension of necessary actions. Studies have demonstrated that the strategic placement of signs in high-traffic areas can boost visibility and accessibility, thereby facilitating smoother evacuations [46]. Furthermore, incorporating digital signage that provides real-time updates about the emergency can further aid decision-making. Lighting along exit routes has been identified as a key factor in guiding individuals during evacuation. Adequate lighting helps occupants easily identify exit paths and become aware of obstacles or hazards caused by smoke and fire. Optimizing lighting pathways is useful to enable individuals to exit the building quickly and safely [47].
Lighting is highlighted is an integral part of fire management system design. User behavior analysis reveals that appropriate lighting can positively influence decision-making and reactions of individuals in emergency situations. By applying Building Information Modeling (BIM), designs can be developed to ensure improved lighting in exit routes, thereby boosting safety and efficiency during evacuations [48].
Familiarity with the Environment: Familiarity with the building layout plays a key role in evacuation decision-making. Individuals who are well-acquainted with their surroundings are more likely to respond swiftly to alarms and other cues, allowing for faster and more efficient evacuations [35]. Regular drills and training exercises can enhance this familiarity, ensuring that occupants know the best escape routes and procedures beforehand. A recent study emphasizes that individuals who participate in regular evacuation drills manifest enhanced confidence and quicker response times along actual emergencies [49].
Assistance from Neighbors and Staff: The presence of supportive individuals, such as neighbors or staff members, can significantly influence evacuation outcomes. In emergencies, the social dynamics of the environment can either facilitate or hinder evacuations. Research indicates that individuals are more likely to evacuate promptly when they receive assistance or encouragement from others [35]. This highlights the importance of fostering a community-oriented approach to emergency preparedness, where occupants are encouraged to look out for one another during crises. Studies have indicated that social support networks can reduce panic and improve collective decision-making during emergencies. researches showed trust dynamics within social networks influence emergency decision-making in large groups and highlights the significance of establishing and maintaining dual-trust relationships—both interpersonal and institutional—during emergencies. By understanding these trust dynamics, organizations can boost collaborative decision-making processes, resulting in more effective and timely responses along critical situations. The findings suggest that fostering trust within social networks can significantly ameliorate consensus-building, ultimately contributing to better outcomes in emergency management and response strategies [49].
Architectural Cues: The design of the physical environment, including architectural features such as exit signs, lighting, and the layout of corridors, can heavily influence evacuation efficiency. Architectural cues that are strategically placed can guide individuals toward exits and help lower panic during emergencies [17]. For instance, well-lit pathways and clearly marked exits can enhance visibility and aid in directing individuals to safety, particularly in low-visibility situations such as smoke-filled environments. Recent research has suggested that incorporating smart building technologies, such as automated lighting systems that activate during emergencies, can further boost evacuation effectiveness by illuminating pathways and exits. Properly designed emergency lighting enhances visibility in smoke-filled or dark environments, enabling occupants to clearly see escape routes and exits, thereby reducing confusion and facilitating efficient evacuations. The psychological impact of adequate lighting cannot be overstated; it helps mitigate panic and anxiety, fostering a sense of security among building occupants. When illuminated paths are present, individuals are more likely to remain calm and follow evacuation procedures. Further, emergency lighting can influence group dynamics, encouraging occupants to assist one another and move collectively toward exits [46].
Technological Innovations: The integration of advanced technologies into emergency response systems can significantly boost the effectiveness of supportive tools. For instance, mobile applications that provide real-time alerts and evacuation instructions can empower individuals to make informed decisions rapidly. These applications can also include features such as location tracking and interactive maps to guide users to the nearest exits [46]. Further, the utilization of virtual reality (VR) training simulations has proved to improve individuals’ preparedness and response times along emergencies by providing immersive experiences that familiarize them with evacuation procedures. Usage of virtual reality simulations can enhance the design and management of building exits in fire scenarios. This method analyzes individuals’ behavior under stressful and crowded conditions, enabling designers and safety managers to evaluate various scenarios as well as propose effective strategies to reduce casualties and improve safety. Ultimately, this simulation can support better training for staff and enhance preparedness for emergencies [50].
Movement Ability: Several studies have revealed that an individual’s movement ability significantly boosts action speed, thereby shortening evacuation time. Individuals with greater mobility can evacuate more quickly during emergencies [32]. In essence, enhanced movement ability is a key factor in effective emergency evacuations during fire incidents [44].
Decision-Making Ability: Those with strong decision-making skills in emergencies experience shorter evacuation times and reach safe areas more quickly [29, 44]. Environmental cues can also influence decision-making and the effectiveness of responses [17]. A well-developed ability to ascertain risks and make timely decisions can significantly enhance evacuation outcomes.
Situational Awareness: Previous studies have indicated that individuals need to accurately recognize danger and comprehend the emergency before initiating an evacuation. The ability to quickly analyze the situation and understand the conditions results in reduced evacuation times [34, 44]. Those who can promptly assess their environment and associated risks are more likely to choose the correct evacuation routes and act swiftly.
Stress and Panic: When individuals perceive danger, their initial reactions often include panic, worry, and stress [35]. These responses can spread among the crowd, resulting in collective panic, which frequently culminates in irrational decision-making [28]. Panic and stress can reduce action speed and prolong evacuation times [21, 32]. However, no studies have demonstrated a negative impact of stress on the quality of evacuations. Physical threats, such as obstacles or falling objects, can heighten fear and panic among individuals [41].
Conversely, panic can sometimes foster a sense of competition among individuals to exit quickly. If individuals can manage their emotional responses, they may transition to cooperative behavior, boosting the flow of evacuation and successfully navigating emergencies [22, 25]. A study noted that, in fire situations, women exhibited a greater tendency to panic than men, leading to slower evacuation times for women [33]. Thus, managing panic, stress, and emotional behaviors can mitigate their negative impacts along emergency evacuations [21, 22].
Stress plays a critical role in the emergency evacuation process, and its impacts depend on an individual's ability to manage the situation. If a person can control their stress and maintain sufficient composure over their behavior as well as decision-making in critical situations, stress can positively influence the evacuation process. Nevertheless, when an individual is unable to control their stress, it can result in reduced efficiency, poor decision-making, and ultimately elevate the risks associated with the evacuation process.
Effects of Smoke on Mental State: One study reported that smoke exposure not only lowers visibility and slows movement speed but also impacts individuals’ mental states, potentially inducing panic. However, smoke exposure can also augment residents’ motivation to evacuate, causing greater participation in emergency exits [30].
Past Experiences: Experiences from similar past incidents can result in two distinct outcomes: In the first scenario, individuals draw upon previous evacuation experiences, enhancing their knowledge and familiarity with procedures, ultimately shortening evacuation time. This familiarity can lead to quicker decision-making and more efficient movement toward safety. Conversely, negative past experiences, particularly traumatic events during previous evacuations, can induce significant stress and panic, disrupting the evacuation process and potentially prolonging evacuation times. For those who have faced traumatic past experiences, implementing management and support strategies along emergencies is crucial [16].
Movement with the Crowd: Most individuals prefer to move with the flow of the crowd and tend to select exits employed by the majority. This behavior emanates from the belief that other exits may be faulty or less accessible, leading to congestion at a single exit and thus increasing evacuation time. Conversely, a few individuals may opt for alternative exits, which, owing to lower traffic, can facilitate quicker evacuations [20, 30]. Nevertheless, if some individuals experience stress and panic, this can create a contagious atmosphere of fear within the crowd, rapidly escalating the situation and slowing the evacuation process [35, 37].
Herd Behavior: The impact of others’ decisions on evacuees is known as the herd effect [28]. People tend to engage in herd behavior, often following the actions of those around them [36, 38]. This can be so powerful that, during emergencies requiring quick decision-making, individuals predominantly rely on herd behavior rather than independent judgment [39]. Herd behavior is particularly evident when individuals move toward exits perceived as less congested. However, there remains uncertainty regarding whether this behavior results in competitive or cooperative interactions among individuals along emergency evacuations [38].
Exit Selection: Previous studies have identified three criteria that individuals rely on when choosing an exit during emergency evacuations in fire incidents: The first criterion is the preference for shorter routes. Individuals tend to choose pathways that minimize travel distance [23]. The second criterion involves following herd behavior, conforming to the actions of the crowd. People often select routes utilized by the majority of evacuees, believing that other exits may be faulty or less accessible. Very few individuals opt for less trafficked exits [36]. The third criterion involves the inclination to take shortcuts; some individuals may choose shortcuts even if these paths are filled with smoke. Nevertheless, if the smoke becomes too dense, they will avoid those routes. There is a correlation between individuals’ risk-taking abilities and their choice of shortcut paths; those with higher risk tolerance are more likely to select shortcut routes [42].
Presence of Emergency Response Plans: This factor describes the existence and effectiveness of established evacuation plans and procedures within buildings.
Culture and Social Characteristics: Several studies have reported that social characteristics, such as levels of cooperation, social roles, and collective stress, significantly affect overall evacuation times [20, 32]. Some research has revealed that societal culture influences individual tendencies, such as individualism and collectivism, impacting emergency evacuations [15]. For instance, in certain occupations, cultural factors have been found to shorten evacuation times. In groups such as teachers and students, culture has a meaningful effect on stress levels, calmness, and decision-making; nevertheless, its significant influence on reducing confusion during evacuations remains unestablished. Culture can also affect reaction times and hazard recognition times [26]. Nonetheless, another study found no significant relationship between emergency evacuation and culture [20].
Identified Information Gaps: In spite of the research conducted on emergency evacuation, significant gaps remain in understanding the relationship between factors such as race, clothing type and style, culture, as well as individuals' social characteristics and crowd movement patterns along emergencies. These factors, either directly or indirectly, influence individuals' behavior when faced with critical situations, but existing studies have not comprehensively explored these connections.
In particular, the influence of socio-cultural variables on individual decision-making, movement patterns in emergencies, and the interaction of these factors with environmental conditions as well as existing infrastructure require deeper examination based on comprehensive data. Further, exploring the interactions between individual and group characteristics and how these interactions affect the speed as well as efficiency of emergency evacuation could support improving planning and reducing harm in future crises.
To address these scientific gaps, future research should focus on multidimensional, data-driven analyses, particularly across diverse cultural and social environments, to develop a comprehensive and practical model for predicting and managing emergency evacuations.
Future research should deal with developing innovative technologies and training programs that boost individual preparedness and resilience in the face of emergencies. By fostering a comprehensive understanding of the human factors at play, we can ameliorate evacuation protocols and ultimately save lives during critical incidents.
The limitations of this study primarily related to access to the full texts of certain articles. Although some of the studies identified in the search fulfilled the inclusion criteria, they were excluded from the final review and analysis owing to the unavailability of their full texts. This limitation may have had a minor impact on the comprehensiveness of the study's findings.
Conclusion
This systematic review highlighted the complex interplay of human factors affecting emergency evacuations during fire incidents. Key demographic and physiological parameters, such as age, gender, physical ability, and education level, would significantly affect individuals’ threat perception and responses. While not strictly “human factors,” technological innovations, architectural features, and supportive tools such as alarms and signage also shape behavior and decision-making during emergencies. The review emphasizes the need for tailored evacuation strategies that deal with the diverse needs of vulnerable populations, including the elderly and those with health challenges. Understanding psychological dimensions, such as stress and panic, is critical for developing interventions that ameliorate situational awareness and decision-making skills. Ultimately, a multidisciplinary approach integrating psychology, sociology, and engineering is essential for effective emergency management.
Conflict of interest
None declared.
Funding
Qazvin University of Medical Sciences provides funding (grant number 403000323) and research support.
Ethical Considerations
This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the highest standards of academic integrity and ethical guidelines for systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Since this study involved the synthesis and analysis of previously published data, no direct contact with human or animal subjects occurred, and thus, obtaining ethical approval from an institutional review board was not required
Code of Ethics
This research was approved by Qazvin University of Medical Sciences under the ethical code IR.QUMS.REC.1402.159.
Authors' Contributions
Kiana Rezaeipour: Literature Search, Study Selection, Data Extraction, Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing; Vida zaroushani: Conceptualization, Methodology, Literature Search, Study Selection, Data Extraction, Validation, Supervision, Project Administration, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing; Mohammad Amerzadeh:
Writing – Review & Editing.
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